Wednesday 18 July 2012

Pregnant Woman Painting

Source:- Google.com.pk
Pregnant Woman Painting Biography
Pregnancy is the fertilization and development of one or more offspring, known as an embryo or fetus, in a woman's uterus. In a pregnancy, there can be multiple gestations, as in the case of twins or triplets. Childbirth usually occurs about 38 weeks after conception; in women who have a menstrual cycle length of four weeks, this is approximately 40 weeks from the start of the last normal menstrual period (LNMP). Human pregnancy is the most studied of all mammalian pregnancies. Conception can be achieved through sexual intercourse or assisted reproductive technology.
An embryo is the developing offspring during the first 8 weeks following conception, and subsequently the term fetus is used henceforth until birth.[1][2] 40% of pregnancies in the United States and United Kingdom are unplanned, and between a quarter and half of those unplanned pregnancies were unwanted pregnancies.[3][4]
In many societies’ medical or legal definitions, human pregnancy is somewhat arbitrarily divided into three trimester periods, as a means to simplify reference to the different stages of prenatal development. The first trimester carries the highest risk of miscarriage (natural death of embryo or fetus). During the second trimester, the development of the fetus can be more easily monitored and diagnosed. The beginning of the third trimester often approximates the point of viability, or the ability of the fetus to survive, with or without medical help, outside of the uterus.[5]
Contents  [hide]
1 Terminology
2 Progression
2.1 Initiation
2.2 Duration
2.3 Childbirth
2.4 Postnatal period
3 Diagnosis
4 Physiology
4.1 First trimester
4.2 Second trimester
4.3 Third trimester
4.4 Embryonic and fetal development and ultrasound imaging
4.5 Physiological changes
5 Management
5.1 Nutrition
5.2 Weight gain
5.3 Immune tolerance
5.4 Medication use
5.5 Exposure to toxins
5.6 Sexual activity during pregnancy
5.7 Exercise
6 Complications
6.1 Ectopic pregnancy
7 Concomitant diseases
8 Stem cell collection
9 Society and culture
9.1 Arts
9.2 Demography
9.3 Desired and undesired pregnancies
9.3.1 Infertility
9.3.2 Abortion
9.4 Legal protection for pregnant women
9.5 Post-menopausal pregnancies
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Terminology

One scientific term for the state of pregnancy is gravidity (adjective "gravid"), Latin for “heavy” and a pregnant female is sometimes referred to as a gravida.[6] Similarly, the term parity (abbreviated as “para”) is used for the number of previous successful live births. Medically, a woman who has never been pregnant is referred to as a “nulligravida”, a woman who is (or has been only) pregnant for the first time as a “primigravida”,[7] and a woman in subsequent pregnancies as a multigravida or “multiparous.”[6][8][9] Hence, during a second pregnancy a woman would be described as “gravida 2, para 1” and upon live delivery as “gravida 2, para 2.” An in-progress pregnancy, as well as abortions, miscarriages, or stillbirths account for parity values being less than the gravida number. In the case of twins, triplets etc., gravida number and parity value are increased by one only. Women who have never carried a pregnancy achieving more than 20 weeks of gestation age are referred to as “nulliparous.”[10]
Progression



Stages in prenatal development, with weeks and months numbered from last menstrual period.
Initiation


The initial stages of human embryogenesis.


Fertilization and implantation in humans.
Although pregnancy begins with implantation, the process leading to pregnancy occurs earlier as the result of the female gamete, or oocyte, merging with the male gamete, spermatozoon. In medicine, this process is referred to as fertilization; in lay terms, it is more commonly known as “conception.” After the point of fertilization, the fused product of the female and male gamete is referred to as a zygote or fertilized egg. The fusion of male and female gametes usually occurs following the act of sexual intercourse, resulting in spontaneous pregnancy. However, the advent of artificial insemination and in vitro fertilisation have made achieving pregnancy possible without engaging in sexual intercourse. This approach may be undertaken as a voluntary choice or due to infertility.
The process of fertilization occurs in several steps, and the interruption of any of them can lead to failure. Through fertilization, the egg is activated to begin its developmental process, and the haploid nuclei of the two gametes come together to form the genome of a new diploid organism.
At the beginning of the process, the sperm undergoes a series of changes, as freshly ejaculated sperm is unable or poorly able to fertilize.[11] The sperm must undergo capacitation in the female's reproductive tract over several hours, which increases its motility and destabilizes its membrane, preparing it for the acrosome reaction, the enzymatic penetration of the egg's tough membrane, the zona pellucida, which surrounds the oocyte. The sperm and the egg cell, which has been released from one of the female's two ovaries, unite in one of the two fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg, known as a zygote, then moves toward the uterus, a journey that can take up to a week to complete. Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after the male and female cells unite. Cell division continues at a rapid rate and the cells then develop into what is known as a blastocyst. The blastocyst is made up of three layers: the ectoderm (which will become the skin and nervous system), the endoderm (which will become the digestive and respiratory systems), and the mesoderm (which will become the muscle and skeletal systems). Finally, the blastocyst arrives at the uterus and attaches to the uterine wall, a process known as implantation.
The mass of cells, now known as an embryo, begins the embryonic stage, which continues until cell differentiation is almost complete at eight weeks. Structures important to the support of the embryo develop, including the placenta and umbilical cord. During this time, cells begin to differentiate into the various body systems. The basic outlines of the organ, body, and nervous systems are established. By the end of the embryonic stage, the beginnings of features such as fingers, eyes, mouth, and ears become visible.
Once cell differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters the final stage and becomes known as a fetus. The early body systems and structures that were established in the embryonic stage continue to develop. Sex organs begin to appear during the third month of gestation. The fetus continues to grow in both weight and length, although the majority of the physical growth occurs in the last weeks of pregnancy.
Duration
Healthcare professionals name three different dates as the start of pregnancy:
the first day of the woman's last normal menstrual period, and the resulting fetal age is called the gestational age
the date of conception (about two weeks before her next expected menstrual period), with the age called fertilization age
the date of implantation (about one week after conception).
Since these are spread over a significant period of time, the duration of pregnancy necessarily depends on the date selected as the starting point chosen.
As measured on a reference group of women with a menstrual cycle of exactly 28-days prior to pregnancy, and who had spontaneous onset of labor, the mean pregnancy length has been estimated to be 283.4 days of gestational age as timed from the first day of the last menstrual period as recalled by the mother, and 280.6 days when the gestational age was retrospectively estimated by obstetric ultrasound measurement of the fetal biparietal diameter (BPD) in the second trimester.[12] In order to have a standard reference point, the normal pregnancy duration is generally assumed to be 280 days (or 40 weeks) of gestational age.
There is a standard deviation of 8–9 days surrounding due dates calculated with even the most accurate methods. This means that fewer than 5 percent of births occur on the day of being 40 weeks of gestational age; 50 percent of births are within a week of this duration, and about 80 percent are within 2 weeks.[12] It is much more useful and accurate, therefore, to consider a range of due dates, rather than one specific day, with some online due date calculators providing this information.[13]
The most common system used among healthcare professionals is Naegele's rule, which was developed in the early 19th century. This calculates the expected due date from the first day of the last normal menstrual period (LMP or LNMP) regardless of factors known to make this inaccurate, such as a shorter or longer menstrual cycle length. Pregnancy most commonly lasts for 40 weeks according to this LNMP-based method, assuming that the woman has a predictable menstrual cycle length of close to 28 days and conceives on the 14th day of that cycle, and a birth between 37 and 42 weeks LNMP is considered full-term.[14] Other, more accurate algorithms take into account a variety of other variables, such as whether this is the first or subsequent child (i.e., pregnant woman is a primipara or a multipara, respectively), ethnicity, parental age, length of menstrual cycle, and menstrual regularity), but these are rarely used by healthcare professionals.
Pregnancy is considered "at term" when gestation attains 37 complete weeks but is less than 42 (between 259 and 294 days since LMP). Events before completion of 37 weeks (259 days) are considered preterm; from week 42 (294 days) events are considered postterm.[15] When a pregnancy exceeds 42 weeks (294 days), the risk of complications for both the woman and the fetus increases significantly.[14][16] Therefore, in an otherwise uncomplicated pregnancy, obstetricians usually prefer to induce labour at some stage between 41 and 42 weeks.[17][18]
Birth before 39 weeks, even if considered "at term", increases the risk of complications and premature death, from factors including under-developed lungs, infection due to under-developed immune system, problems feeding due to under-developed brain, and jaundice from under-developed liver. Some hospitals in the United States have noted a significant increase in neonatal intensive care unit patients when women schedule deliveries for convenience and are taking steps to reduce induction for non-medical reasons.[19] Complications from Caesarean section are more common than for live births.
Recent medical literature prefers the terminology preterm and postterm to premature and postmature. Preterm and postterm are unambiguously defined as above, whereas premature and postmature have historical meaning and relate more to the infant's size and state of development rather than to the stage of pregnancy.[20][21]
Accurate dating of pregnancy is important, because it is used in calculating the results of various prenatal tests, (for example, in the triple test). A decision may be made to induce labour if a fetus is perceived to be overdue. Furthermore, if LMP and ultrasound dating predict different respective due dates, with the latter being later, this might signify slowed fetal growth and therefore require closer review.
The age of fetal viability has been receding because of continued medical progress. Whereas it used to be 28 weeks, it has been brought back to as early as 23, or even 22 weeks in some countries.[citation needed]
Childbirth
Main article: Childbirth
Childbirth is the process whereby an infant is born. It is considered to be the beginning of the infant's life, and age is defined relative to this event in most cultures.
A woman is considered to be in labour when she begins experiencing regular uterine contractions, accompanied by changes of her cervix – primarily effacement and dilation. While childbirth is widely experienced as painful, some women do report painless labours, while others find that concentrating on the birth helps to quicken labour and lessen the sensations. Most births are successful vaginal births, but sometimes complications arise and a woman may undergo a cesarean section.
During the time immediately after birth, both the mother and the baby are hormonally cued to bond, the mother through the release of oxytocin, a hormone also released during breastfeeding. Studies show that skin-to-skin contact between a mother and her newborn immediately after birth is beneficial for both mother and baby. A review done by the World Health Organization found that skin-to-skin contact between mothers and babies after birth reduces crying, improves mother-infant interaction, and helps mothers to breastfeed successfully. They recommend that neonates be allowed to bond with the mother during their first two hours after birth, the period that they tend to be more alert than in the following hours of early life.[22]
Postnatal period
Main article: Postnatal
The postnatal period begins immediately after the birth of a child and then extends for about six weeks. During this period, the mother's body begins the return to prepregnancy conditions that includes changes in hormone levels and uterus size.
Diagnosis



Linea nigra in a woman at 22 weeks pregnant.
The beginning of pregnancy may be detected in a number of different ways, either by a pregnant woman without medical testing, or by using medical tests with or without the assistance of a medical professional.
Most pregnant women experience a number of symptoms,[23] which can signify pregnancy. The symptoms can include nausea and vomiting, excessive tiredness and fatigue, cravings for certain foods that are not normally sought out, and frequent urination particularly during the night.
A number of early medical signs are associated with pregnancy.[24][25] These signs typically appear, if at all, within the first few weeks after conception. Although not all of these signs are universally present, nor are all of them diagnostic by themselves, taken together they make a presumptive diagnosis of pregnancy. These signs include the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the blood and urine, missed menstrual period, implantation bleeding that occurs at implantation of the embryo in the uterus during the third or fourth week after last menstrual period, increased basal body temperature sustained for over 2 weeks after ovulation, Chadwick's sign (darkening of the cervix, vagina, and vulva), Goodell's sign (softening of the vaginal portion of the cervix), Hegar's sign (softening of the uterus isthmus), and pigmentation of linea alba – Linea nigra, (darkening of the skin in a midline of the abdomen, caused by hyperpigmentation resulting from hormonal changes, usually appearing around the middle of pregnancy).[24][25] Breast tenderness is common during the first trimester, and is more common in women who are pregnant at a young age.[26]
Pregnancy detection can be accomplished using one or more various pregnancy tests,[27] which detect hormones generated by the newly formed placenta. Clinical blood and urine tests can detect pregnancy 12 days after implantation.[28] Blood pregnancy tests are more sensitive than urine tests (giving less false negatives).[29] Home pregnancy tests are urine tests, and normally cannot detect a pregnancy until at least 12 to 15 days after fertilization. A quantitative blood test can determine approximately the date the embryo was conceived.
In the post-implantation phase, the blastocyst secretes a hormone named human chorionic gonadotropin, which in turn stimulates the corpus luteum in the woman's ovary to continue producing progesterone. This acts to maintain the lining of the uterus so that the embryo will continue to be nourished. The glands in the lining of the uterus will swell in response to the blastocyst, and capillaries will be stimulated to grow in that region. This allows the blastocyst to receive vital nutrients from the woman.
Despite all the signs, some women may not realize they are pregnant until they are quite far along in their pregnancy. In some cases, a few women have not been aware of their pregnancy until they begin labour. This can be caused by many factors, including irregular periods (quite common in teenagers), certain medications (not related to conceiving children), and obese women who disregard their weight gain. Others may be in denial of their situation.
An early obstetric ultrasonography can determine the age of the pregnancy fairly accurately. In practice, medical professionals typically express the age of a pregnancy (i.e., an "age" for an embryo) in terms of "menstrual date" based on the first day of a woman's last menstrual period, as the woman reports it. Unless a woman's recent sexual activity has been limited, she has been charting her cycles, or the conception is the result of some types of fertility treatment (such as IUI or IVF), the exact date of fertilization is unknown. Without symptoms such as morning sickness, often the only visible sign of a pregnancy is an interruption of the woman's normal monthly menstruation cycle, (i.e., a "late period"). Hence, the "menstrual date" is simply a common educated estimate for the age of a fetus, which is an average of 2 weeks later than the first day of the woman's last menstrual period. The term "conception date" may sometimes be used when that date is more certain, though even medical professionals can be imprecise with their use of the two distinct terms. The due date can be calculated by using Naegele's rule. The expected date of delivery may also be calculated from sonogram measurement of the fetus. This method is slightly more accurate than methods based on LMP.[30] Additional obstetric diagnostic techniques can estimate the health and presence or absence of congenital diseases at an early stage.
Physiology



Breast changes as seen during pregnancy. Note the increase in size and darkening of the areola.
Pregnancy is typically broken into three periods, or trimesters, each of about three months.[31] While there are no hard and fast rules, these distinctions are useful in describing the changes that take place over time.
First trimester
Traditionally, medical professionals have measured pregnancy from a number of convenient points, including the day of last menstruation, ovulation, fertilization, implantation and chemical detection. In medicine, pregnancy is often defined as beginning when the developing embryo becomes implanted in the endometrial lining of a woman's uterus. Most pregnant women do not have any specific signs or symptoms of implantation, although it is not uncommon to experience minimal bleeding. After implantation, the uterine endometrium is called the decidua. The placenta, which is formed partly from the decidua and partly from outer layers of the embryo, connects the developing embryo to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mother's blood supply. The umbilical cord is the connecting cord from the embryo or fetus to the placenta. The developing embryo undergoes tremendous growth and changes during the process of fetal development.
Morning sickness occurs in about seventy percent of all pregnant women, and typically improves after the first trimester.[32] Although described as "morning sickness", women can experience this nausea during afternoon, evening, and throughout the entire day.
Shortly after conception, the nipples and areolas begin to darken due to a temporary increase in hormones.[33] This process continues throughout the pregnancy.
The first 12 weeks of pregnancy are considered to make up the first trimester. The first two weeks from the first trimester are calculated as the first two weeks of pregnancy even though the pregnancy does not actually exist. These two weeks are the two weeks before conception and include the woman's last period.
The third week is the week in which fertilization occurs and the 4th week is the period when implantation takes place. In the 4th week, the fecundated egg reaches the uterus and burrows into its wall which provides it with the nutrients it needs. At this point, the zygote becomes a blastocyst and the placenta starts to form. Moreover, most of the pregnancy tests may detect a pregnancy beginning with this week.
The 5th week marks the start of the embryonic period. This is when the embryo's brain, spinal cord, heart and other organs begin to form.[34] At this point the embryo is made up of three layers, of which the top one (called the ectoderm) will give rise to the embryo's outermost layer of skin, central and peripheral nervous systems, eyes, inner ear, and many connective tissues.[34] The heart and the beginning of the circulatory system as well as the bones, muscles and kidneys are made up from the mesoderm (the middle layer). The inner layer of the embryo will serve as the starting point for the development of the lungs, intestine and bladder. This layer is referred to as the endoderm. An embryo at 5 weeks is normally between 1⁄16 and 1⁄8 inch (1.6 and 3.2 mm) in length.
In the 6th week, the embryo will be developing basic facial features and its arms and legs start to grow. At this point, the embryo is usually no longer than 1⁄6 to 1⁄4 inch (4.2 to 6.3 mm). In the following week, the brain, face and arms and legs quickly develop. In the 8th week, the embryo starts moving and in the next 3 weeks, the embryo's toes, neck and genitals develop as well. According to the American Pregnancy Association, by the end of the first trimester, the fetus will be about 3 inches (76 mm) long and will weigh approximately 1 ounce (28 g).[35] Once pregnancy moves into the second trimester, all the risks of miscarriage and birth defects occurring drop drastically.
Second trimester


By the end of the second trimester, the expanding uterus has created a visible "baby bump". Although the breasts have been developing internally since the beginning of the pregnancy, most of the visible changes appear after this point.
Weeks 13 to 28 of the pregnancy are called the second trimester. Most women feel more energized in this period, and begin to put on weight as the symptoms of morning sickness subside and eventually fade away.
The uterus, the muscular organ that holds the developing fetus, can expand up to 20 times its normal size during pregnancy.
Although the fetus begins to move and takes a recognizable human shape during the first trimester, it is not until the second trimester that movement of the fetus, often referred to as "quickening", can be felt. This typically happens in the fourth month, more specifically in the 20th to 21st week, or by the 19th week if the woman has been pregnant before. However, it is not uncommon for some women not to feel the fetus move until much later. The placenta fully functions at this time and the fetus makes insulin and urinates. The reproductive organs distinguish the fetus as male or female.
During the second trimester, most women begin to wear maternity clothes.
Third trimester


Comparison of growth of the abdomen between 26 weeks and 40 weeks gestation.
Final weight gain takes place, which is the most weight gain throughout the pregnancy. The fetus will be growing the most rapidly during this stage, gaining up to 28 g per day. The woman's belly will transform in shape as the belly drops due to the fetus turning in a downward position ready for birth. During the second trimester, the woman's belly would have been very upright, whereas in the third trimester it will drop down quite low, and the woman will be able to lift her belly up and down. The fetus begins to move regularly, and is felt by the woman. Fetal movement can become quite strong and be disruptive to the woman. The woman's navel will sometimes become convex, "popping" out, due to her expanding abdomen. This period of her pregnancy can be uncomfortable, causing symptoms like weak bladder control and backache. Movement of the fetus becomes stronger and more frequent and via improved brain, eye, and muscle function the fetus is prepared for ex utero viability. The woman can feel the fetus "rolling" and it may cause pain or discomfort when it is near the woman's ribs and spine.


1858 engraving of a pregnant woman showing the fetus in the womb
There is head engagement in the third trimester, that is, the fetal head descends into the pelvic cavity so that only a small part (or none) of it can be felt abdominally. The perenium and cervix are further flattened and the head may be felt vaginally.[36] Head engagement is known colloquially as the baby drop, and in natural medicine as the lightening because of the release of pressure on the upper abdomen and renewed ease in breathing. However, it severely reduces bladder capacity, increases pressure on the pelvic floor and the rectum, and the mother may experience the perpetual sensation that the fetus will "fall out" at any moment.[37]
It is during this time that a baby born prematurely may survive. The use of modern medical intensive care technology has greatly increased the probability of premature babies surviving, and has pushed back the boundary of viability to much earlier dates than would be possible without assistance.[38] In spite of these developments, premature birth remains a major threat to the fetus, and may result in ill health in later life, even if the baby survives.
Embryonic and fetal development and ultrasound imaging
See also: Prenatal development and Obstetric ultrasonography
Prenatal development is divided into two primary biological stages. The first is the embryonic stage, which lasts for about two months. At this point, the fetal stage begins. At the beginning of the fetal stage, the risk of miscarriage decreases sharply,[39] and all major structures including the head, brain, hands, feet, and other organs are present, and they continue to grow and develop. When the fetal stage commences, a fetus is typically about 30 mm (1.2 inches) in length, and the heart can be seen beating via ultrasound; the fetus can be seen making various involuntary motions at this stage.[40]
Electrical brain activity is first detected between the 5th and 6th week of gestation, though this is still considered primitive neural activity rather than the beginning of conscious thought, something that develops much later in fetation. Synapses begin forming at 17 weeks, and at about week 28 begin to multiply at a rapid pace which continues until 3 to 4 months after birth.
Pregnant Woman Painting
Pregnant Woman Painting
Pregnant Woman Painting
Pregnant Woman Painting
Pregnant Woman Painting
Pregnant Woman Painting
Pregnant Woman Painting
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